The Integration of Positive and Islamic Law in Contemporary Forest Conservation Policies Based on Sustainable Development: A Comparative Study of Indonesia and Malaysia

Absori; Arief Budiono; Mohammad Indra Bangsawan; Rizka; Aminuddin Mustaffa

doi:10.32332/milrev.v5i1.13038

Authors

Absori Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Arief Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
Indra Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Rizka Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Aminuddin Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v5i1.13038

Keywords:

Forest Conservation; Islamic Law; Positive Law; Sustainable Development.

Abstract

This study examines the integration of positive law and Islamic law within contemporary sustainable development–based forest management conservation policies through a comparative analysis of Indonesia and Malaysia. The research aims to analyze the normative and regulatory frameworks governing forest conservation in both countries and explore the extent to which Islamic legal principles are incorporated into state-based environmental governance. Employing a qualitative doctrinal and comparative legal approach, this study analyzes statutory regulations, policy documents, judicial decisions, and relevant Islamic legal sources, complemented by secondary scholarly literature. The analytical framework combines sustainable development theory with maqāṣid al-sharīʿah to assess how environmental protection aligns with both constitutional mandates and Islamic normative objectives. The findings reveal that Indonesia and Malaysia demonstrate different models of legal integration. Indonesia tends to institutionalize environmental protection through constitutional and statutory mechanisms, while incorporating Islamic values in a more implicit, socio-cultural manner. In contrast, Malaysia exhibits a more formal recognition of Islamic legal principles within state-level religious and environmental governance structures. Despite these differences, both countries reflect a converging commitment to ecological sustainability grounded in legal pluralism. However, challenges remain in harmonizing regulatory enforcement, addressing the drivers of deforestation, and ensuring community-based participation. This study contributes to the development of contemporary Islamic environmental jurisprudence by offering a comparative legal model of integrative governance between positive and Islamic law in forest conservation policy. It advances scholarly discourse on legal pluralism, sustainable development, and the operationalization of maqāṣid al-sharīʿah within modern environmental regulatory frameworks in Muslim-majority countries.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Arief, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia

Lecturer
Indra, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia

Lecturer
Rizka, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia

Lecturer
Aminuddin, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia

Professor of Law

References

Absori, A., H. M. Anuar, Arief Budiono, Rizka, Mohammad Indra Bangsawan, and R. R. Harun. ‘Sustainable Forest-Based Law Enforcement against Corporate Illegal Logging’’. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy, and Development 8, no. 11 (2024). https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i11.9067.

Absori, A., T. Hernanda, K. Wardiono, A. F. Azhari, and Arief Budiono. ‘Critical Analysis of River Basin Management Regulation in Bengawan Solo for Water Tourism: Local Legislation in 7 Regency’’. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development 19 (2023): 844–851. https://doi.org/10.37394/232015.2023.19.80.

Absori, A., S. S. Nugroho, Arief Budiono, E. Ellyani, S. S. Nurani, and M. Fadlillah. ‘Indonesia as an Ecocracic Country: The State’s Responsibility and the People’s Participation in Preserving and in Managing the Environment Quality’. Quality: Access to Success 21, no. 179 (2020): 140–143.

Afidah, Ida. ‘Integrating Local Wisdom for Sustainable Forest Community Empowerment: Lessons From Indonesia and Malaysia’. Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management 10, no. 48s (May 2025): 437–51. https://doi.org/10.52783/jisem.v10i48s.9553.

Ahmad, Salbiah. ‘Islam in Malaysia: Constitutional and Human Rights Perspectives’. Muslim World Journal of Human Rights 2 (January 2005). https://doi.org/10.2202/1554-4419.1033.

Anugrah, Iwan Setiajie, Andayani Listyawati, Andi Ishak, Niki Elistus Liwaherilla, Ibnu Hasan Muchtar, Fauziah, and Suhanah. ‘Legal Pluralism and Rural Welfare: Harmonizing Customary Law and Islamic Principles in Indonesia’s Village Fund Allocation’. El-Mashlahah 15, no. 2 (December 2025): 303–324. https://doi.org/10.23971/el-mashlahah.v15i2.10429.

Arts, Bas, Maria Brockhaus, Lukas Giessen, and Constance L. McDermott. ‘The Performance of Global Forest Governance: Three Contrasting Perspectives’. Forest Policy and Economics 161 (April 2024): 103165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2024.103165.

Azis, Fakih Abdul. ‘Konstruksi Eco-Fiqh Indonesia : Analisis Fatwa MUI No. 86 Tahun 2023 Tentang Perubahan Iklim Perspektif Maqāṣid al-Syarī’ah’. Jurnal Pemuliaan Lingkungan Hidup Dan Sumber Daya Alam 1, no. 01 (October 2025). https://jurnal.mui.or.id/index.php/lplhsda/article/view/9.

Chan, Choon Keat, Gabriel Hoh Teck Ling, Chin Siong Ho, and Kasturi Devi Kanniah. ‘Sustainable Forest Management and Effective Land Use Policies for Mitigating Forest Loss: The Case of Malaysia’. Chemical Engineering Transactions 106 (December 2023): 799–804. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET23106134.

Clarkee, Ethan Michael. ‘Designing Gender-Responsive, Inclusive, and Transformative Learning Approaches for Modern Education’. Nusantara Education 5, no. 1 (March 2026): 62–72. https://doi.org/10.66325/nusantaraeducation.v5i1.258.

Desky, Harjoni, and Windatria. ‘Theological and Ethical Dimensions of Global Warming in MUI Fatwa No. 86 of 2023’. Jurnal Pemuliaan Lingkungan Hidup Dan Sumber Daya Alam 1, no. 01 (October 2025). https://jurnal.mui.or.id/index.php/lplhsda/article/view/15.

Ginting, Salmina Wati, Isnen Fitri, Norhazlan Haron, and Seng Boon Lim. ‘Forest Governance and Rural-Architecture Practices: A Comparative Study of Baduy (Indonesia) and Temiar (Malaysia)’. Global Forest Journal. 4, no. 1 (January 2026): 44–51. https://doi.org/10.32734/gfj.v4i1.23757.

Hafidz, Jawade, Dini Amalia Fitri, Muhammad Azam, Achmad Arifullah, and Agus Prasetia Wiranto. ‘The Corruption Reduction with an Administrative Law Approach: Evidence from Australia’. Lembaga Contrarius Indonesia 4, no. 3 (2024): 822–841. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v4i3.396.

Hafidz, Jawade, Muhamamd Dias Saktiawan, Agus Prasetia Wiranto, Aditya Noviyansyah, and Ahmed Kheir Osman. ‘Contemporary Legal Accountability Reform in Public Procurement: A Framework Integrating Ethical Norms and Anti-Corruption Mechanism’. MILRev: Metro Islamic Law Review 4, no. 1 (2025): 517–538. https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v4i1.10664.

Hamka, Indra Satriani, Eril, and Irna Rufaida Arma. ‘Pandangan Hukum Islam Terhadap Kerusakan Hutan Atas Pembangunan Bumi Perkemahan Di Taman Hutan Raya Abd. Latief Kabupaten Sinjai’. Asy-Syari’ah : Jurnal Hukum Islam 9, no. 2 (July 2023): 155–179. https://doi.org/10.55210/assyariah.v9i2.1095.

Haq, Islamul, Sudirman L, and Muhammad Majdy Amiruddin. ‘Eco-Theological Insights on The Sasi Tradition: Analyzing Environmental Ethics and Sanctions Through Fiqh al-Bi’ah and Islamic Criminal Law’. Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 10, no. 1 (April 2025): 58–80. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v10i1.9412.

Hariri, A., B. Babussalam, and Muhammad Aunurrochim Mas’ad Saleh. ‘Between Legality and Justice: A Critical Study of the Supreme Court’s Judicial Reasoning in Dispute of the Awyu Customary Forest’’. Jurnal Jurisprudence 15, no. 2 (2025): 146–176. https://doi.org/10.23917/jurisprudence.v15i2.11442.

Harly, Lalu Noval Banu. ‘Sustainable Forest Management from the Perspective of Customary Law in Indonesia: A Case Study in the Bayan Community’. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities 1, no. 1 (January 2023): 32–42. https://doi.org/10.55681/ijssh.v1i1.324.

Ibrahim, Tuan Muhammad Faris Hamzi Tuan, Nasrul Hisyam Nor Muhamad, and Ahmad Syukran Baharuddin. ‘Maqāsid Al-Shariʿah and Digital Forensics: Towards a Fiqh-Based Evidentiary Model in Sharīʿah Criminal Justice’. Al-’Adalah 22, no. 2 (December 2025): 565–598. https://doi.org/10.24042/adalah.v222.27886.

Ihsan, Arif, and M. Nazir Salim. ‘Ulayat Land and Agrarian Reform Policy in West Sumatra’. Marcapada: Jurnal Kebijakan Pertanahan 1, no. 2 (April 2022): 155–171. https://doi.org/10.31292/mj.v1i2.17.

Kismartini, Kismartini, Hardi Warsono, Jafron Wasiq Hidayat, Bambang Pujiyono, Irfan Murtadho Yusuf, and Mohammad Nurul Huda. ‘Deliberative Governance Principles in Forest Areas Management with Special Purposes’. Policy & Governance Review 8, no. 2 (May 2024): 154–168. https://doi.org/10.30589/pgr.v8i2.864.

Mahdi, Imam, Etry Mike, and Arini Azka Mutia. ‘Contextualizing Islamic Law in Resolving Customary Land Conflicts: A Siyasah Syar’iyyah Approach to the Semende Tribe’s Dispute in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park’. Jurnal Ilmiah Mizani: Wacana Hukum, Ekonomi Dan Keagamaan 12, no. 2 (November 2025): 696–710. https://doi.org/10.29300/mzn.v12i2.8619.

Mangka, Ansar, Amrah Husma, and Jahada Mangka. ‘Pelestarian Lingkungan Hidup Dalam Pandangan Syariat Islam: Conservation of the Environment in Islamic Law View’. BUSTANUL FUQAHA: Jurnal Bidang Hukum Islam 3, no. 2 (August 2022): 205–221. https://doi.org/10.36701/bustanul.v3i2.613.

Mashdurohatun, Anis, Yusfandi Usman, Toni Ariadi Efendi, Purwatik Purwatik, and Istiniyati Istiniyati. ‘Rethinking Palm Oil Plastic Regulations for Sustainable and Ecological Justice, Journal of Human Rights’. Culture and Legal System 5, no. 2 (2025): 500–530. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v5i2.681.

Maskun, Ratnawati, Wiranti, Asriyani, and Jamal Aslan. ‘Legal Framework Model for Sustainable Solid Waste Management in Indonesia: A Contemporary Environmental Fiqh Perspective’. MILRev: Metro Islamic Law Review 4, no. 2 (September 2025): 1097–1122. https://doi.org/10.32332/milrev.v4i2.11104.

Miles, Matthew B., and A. Michael Huberman. Analisis Data Kualitatif : Buku Sumber Tentang Metode-Metode Baru. Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia Press, 2014.

Munib, Munib, Rafik Patrajaya, Reza Noor Ihsan, and Muhammad Amin. ‘Conservation Environmental Sustainability in The Perspective of Islamic Legal Philosophy’. Samarah: Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Dan Hukum Islam 6, no. 2 (October 2022): 556–572. https://doi.org/10.22373/sjhk.v6i2.12411.

Nilda, Elvi, Rifqi Nurdiansyah, Doli Witro, Mohammad Hidayaturrahman, Rahmad Setyawan, and Raid Alghani. ‘Ecological Awareness in Buying and Selling: Fiqh al-Bi’ah Analysis on Plastic Bag Use at Tanjung Bajure Market, Indonesia’. Jurnal Ilmiah Mizani: Wacana Hukum, Ekonomi Dan Keagamaan 12, no. 2 (July 2025): 462–478. https://doi.org/10.29300/mzn.v12i2.7822.

Nowaak, Anna Katarrzyna. ‘Facilitating Academic Mobility and Knowledge Exchange to Promote Continuous Learning and Collaboration’. Nusantara Education 5, no. 1 (March 2026): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.66325/nusantaraeducation.v5i1.254.

Nur, Afrizal, Hayati bin Husin, Alwizar, and Muhammad Yasir. ‘Qur’anic Ecotheology and the Ethics of Forest Protection in Indonesia’. Jurnal Studi Ilmu-Ilmu Al-Qur’an Dan Hadis 26, no. 2 (July 2025): 351–382. https://doi.org/10.14421/qh.v26i2.6312.

Nurani, Nina, Apriwandi Apriwandi, and Hafied Noor Bagja. ‘Intellectual Property Rights Law Reform Based on Maqāṣid Al-Sharī‘ah as a Model for Green Business-Based Creative Industry Protection to Support Sustainable Development’. De Jure: Jurnal Hukum Dan Syar’iah 18, no. 1 (February 2026): 1–32. https://doi.org/10.18860/j-fsh.v18i1.40840.

Nurholis, Muhamad. ‘Islamic Law and Environmental Sustainability: Maqasid al-Sharia’s Perspective’. Jurnal Mediasas: Media Ilmu Syari’ah Dan Ahwal Al-Syakhsiyyah 8, no. 3 (August 2025): 541–548. https://doi.org/10.58824/mediasas.v8i3.413.

Nursafitri, Fadhila, Joko Santoso, and Ahmad Bagaskara. ‘Governance Dynamics and Stakeholder Interactions in Sustainable Forest Management Initiatives’. Qriset Indonesia Journal of Forestry 1, no. 1 (January 2026): 06–11.

Pajeri, Sahrizal, Hamdani Hamdani, and Muksalmina Muksalmina. ‘Peran Lembaga Adat Dalam Mengelola Hutan Lindung Berdasarkan Peraturan Menteri Lingkungan Hidup Dan Kehutanan Nomor 9 Tahun 2021 Tentang Pengelolaan Perhutanan Sosial (Studi Penelitian Di Gampong Agusen Kecamatan Blangkejeren Kabupaten Gayo Lues)’. Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Fakultas Hukum Universitas Malikussaleh 8, no. 2 (August 2025): 501–520. https://doi.org/10.29103/jimfh.v8i2.21727.

Pingking, Andreas, and Rosazman Hussin. ‘Cabaran Pemuliharaan Hutan Melalui Pendekatan Penglibatan Komuniti dan Pihak Berkepentingan di Malaysia dan Indonesia: Tinjauan Literatur’. Journal of Borneo Social Transformation Studies 9, no. 1 (December 2023): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.51200/jobsts.v9i1.4754.

Rahim, Rohani Abdul, Muhammad Afiq Ahmad Tajuddin, Rovina Intung, Azizah Landa, and Herlina Makanah. ‘Foreign Migrants Trespassing in Sabah Forest Reserves: A Legal Discourse’. Sriwijaya Law Review, 31 January 2021, 101–114. https://doi.org/10.28946/slrev.Vol5.Iss1.977.pp101-115.

Ramadhan, D., and R. Subekti. ‘Legal Examination of Military Court Decisions on the Criminal Actions of Indonesian Navy Members in Selling Illegal Timber’. Jurnal Jurisprudence 15, no. 1 (2025): 67–82.

Robiyana, Elvan, and Tati Sarihati. ‘Collaborative Governance and Management in Forest and Critical Land Rehabilitation: A West Java Case Study’. Journal of Educational Management Research 4, no. 6 (December 2025): 2896–2908. https://doi.org/10.61987/jemr.v4i6.1507.

Samuda, Muhammad Ilham, Anis Mashdurohatun, Sri Endah Wahyuningsih, and Hartiwiningsih. ‘Reconstruction of Regulation of Giving False Testimony at Pretrial Sessions in Corruption Cases in Indonesia Based on Pancasila Justice’. Scholars International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 2023, 399–407. https://doi.org/10.36348/sijlcj.2023.v06i08.004.

Saputra, Deris Arista. ‘Religious Transition from Islam to Non-Islam: Legality, Sanctions, and Procedures in Indonesia and Malaysia’. Integration: Journal Of Social Sciences And Culture 3, no. 2 (April 2025): 437–442. No. https://doi.org/10.38142/ijssc.v3i2.281.

Satria, Rahmad. ‘Legal and Institutional Frameworks for Managing Forest Resources: A Comparative Study of ASEAN Countries’. Jurnal Konseling Dan Pendidikan 13, no. 1 (April 2025): 409–419. https://doi.org/10.29210/1143900.

Seman, Nurulnabila Anis Mat, and Maizatun Mustafa. ‘Jerebu Rentas Sempadan: Isu Dan Cabaran Undang-Undang Di Malaysia Dalam Mengekalkan Kualiti Udara Yang Baik: Transboundary Haze Pollution: Issues and Challenges of the Law in Malaysia in Maintaining Good Air Quality’. The Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah Journal (JSASS) 6, no. 1 (June 2019): 1–15.

Setyawan, Vincentius, and Bariah Safrut. ‘Rethinking Law and Justice: The Core Principles of Critical Legal Studies against Legal Formalism’. Nusantara: Journal Of Law Studies 4, no. 2 (October 2025): 74–85. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17332128.

Shah, Dian A. H. ‘The Law and Politics of Religion and Constitutional Practices in Asia’. Asian Journal of Comparative Law 13, no. 2 (December 2018): 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1017/asjcl.2019.3.

Suparto, Suparto, Admiral Admiral, Ardiansyah Ardiansyah, and Sultanova Dilshoda Namazovna. ‘The Concept of State Control over Forests and Forest Areas in Indonesia’. Journal of Law, Environmental and Justice 3, no. 2 (July 2025): 201–228. https://doi.org/10.62264/jlej.v3i2.136.

———. ‘The Concept of State Control over Forests and Forest Areas in Indonesia’. Journal of Law, Environmental and Justice 3, no. 2 (July 2025): 201–28. https://doi.org/10.62264/jlej.v3i2.136.

Susana, Lina Marlina, Ramadhani Irma Tripalupi, Suparman Kholil, Nur Efendi, and Gina Sakinah. ‘Reconstructing Islamic Legal Norms in Environmental Governance: A Maqasid-Based Legal Critique of Indonesia’s Resource Policies’. Al-Istinbath: Jurnal Hukum Islam 10, no. 2 (September 2025): 650–670. https://doi.org/10.29240/jhi.v10i2.13038.

Syafi’i, Imam, Ramdan Wagianto, Hawa’ Hidayatul Hikmiyah, Irzak Yuliardy Nugroho, and Syaikhoni. ‘Harmonization of Islamic Law and Local Wisdom: A Methodological Reconstruction of Ijtihad in Family Law Based on Yusuf al-Qaradawi’s Istinbāṭ Approach’. Nusantara: Journal of Law Studies 5, no. 1 (January 2026): 25–43. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18359276.

Syamsuri, Fina Nurafni, Ahmad Havid Jakiyudin, and Mohammad Taqiuddin Mohamad. ‘Connecting ISF to ISEs for Decent Work (SDG 8): A Conceptual Framework’. Al-Muamalat 13, no. 1 (March 2026): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.15575/am.v13i1.49387.

Taha, Nur Wahida Md, Betania Kartika Muflih, and Mohammad Aizat Jamaludin. ‘Environmental Preservation from Maqasid Shariah and Islamic Perspective: A Literature Review’. Amorti: Jurnal Studi Islam Interdisipliner, 15 January 2025, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.59944/amorti.v4i1.404.

Talaat, Wan Izatul Asma Wan, Norhayati Mohd Tahir, and Mohd Lokman Husain. ‘Sustainable Management of Forest Biodiversity and the Present Malaysian Policy and Legal Framework’. Journal of Sustainable Development 5, no. 3 (February 2012): 76. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n3p76.

Tando, Cahyoko Edi, Sudarmo, and Rina Herlina Haryanti. ‘Collaborative Governance Effort to Manage Forest in Kalimantan Island: Literature Review’. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika 28, no. 1 (April 2022): 15–21. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.28.1.15.

Tucker, Catherine May. ‘Learning on Governance in Forest Ecosystems: Lessons from Recent Research’. International Journal of the Commons 4, no. 2 (September 2010). https://doi.org/10.18352/ijc.224.

Wahdini, Muhammad, Hasse Jubba, Kamsi, Achmadi, Ardi Akbar Tanjung, and Ahamed Sarjoon Razick. ‘Harmonization of Customary Law, Green Constitution and Green Fatwa: Case Forest Burning and Land for Agriculture in Central Kalimantan’. Mazahibuna: Jurnal Perbandingan Mazhab, 6 August 2025, 138–156. https://doi.org/10.24252/mazahibuna.vi.55190.

Wahdini, Muhammad, Kamsi, Hasse Jubba, and Wahyudi Kurniawan. ‘Negotiating Shari’a and Sustainability: The Changing Roles of Islamic Organisations in Indonesia’s Environmental Legal Reform’. Indonesia Law Reform Journal 5, no. 3 (November 2025): 377–391. https://doi.org/10.22219/ilrej.v5i3.42010.

Widayati, Widayati, Winanto Winanto, Andri Winjaya Laksana, Moh. Nurul Huda, and Nur Fareha. ‘The Challenges of Using the Omnibus Law Method in Indonesia’s Legal System’. Volksgeist: Jurnal Ilmu Hukum Dan Konstitusi 8, no. 2 (2025): 459–477. https://doi.org/10.24090/volksgeist.v8i2.13382.

Yaakob, Adzidah, and Intan Nadia Ghulam Khan. ‘Forest Offences in Protected Areas: An Appraisal to Maqasid Shariah in Federal and State Government Relationship’. Ulum Islamiyyah 34, no. 3 (November 2022): 50–59. https://doi.org/10.33102/uij.vol34no3.489.

Yanti, Illy, Yuliatin Yuliatin, Siti Mahmudah, Mahluddin Mahluddin, and Yuniar Galuh Larasati. ‘Negotiating Sharīʿah and Customary Law: Legal Pluralism in Familial Relationships among the Suku Anak Dalam in Jambi’. Journal of Islamic Law 6, no. 2 (June 2025): 177–205. https://doi.org/10.24260/jil.v6i2.3311.

Yolamalinda, Yolamalinda, Laili Fuji Widyawati, and Asti Istiqomah. ‘Implementation Of Good Forest Governance In Forest Management In Indonesia’. Jurnal Ilmiah Multidisiplin Indonesia (JIM-ID) 2, no. 02 (July 2023): 77–88. https://doi.org/10.58471/esaprom.v2i02.2248.

Yolanda, Sonia, Muhammad Naufal Hakim, Zahvirah Ayudiah Pratiwi, Syamsu Adriyan Sahidin, Muhammad Fadhlurrahman, and Muhammad Naufal Farras Gumay. ‘Konflik Lahan Dan HAM : Telaah Efektivitas Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Hak Masyarakat Adat Di Indonesia Dari Praktik Land Grabbing Dan Green Grabbing’. Referendum : Jurnal Hukum Perdata Dan Pidana 1, no. 4 (December 2024): 236–248. https://doi.org/10.62383/referendum.v1i4.362.

Yusuf, Muhammad. ‘Eco-Fiqh: Pendekatan Maslahat Terhadap Amdal Dan Konservasi Lingkungan’. Al-Daulah: Jurnal Hukum Dan Perundangan Islam 9, no. 2 (October 2019): 250–273. https://doi.org/10.15642/ad.2019.9.2.250-273.

Yuza, Ahmad Fitra, Halimah Abdul Manaf, and Zainal Zainal. ‘Deforestation Policy Governance in Indonesia’. CosmoGov: Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan 9, no. 1 (June 2023): 36–49. https://doi.org/10.24198/cosmogov.v9i1.44778.