CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGIES IN HAJJ MANAGEMENT: A ZERO-CARBON FRAMEWORK USING ECOLOGICAL MODERNIZATION THEORY AND TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE ANALYSIS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32332/multazam.v6i1.13043Keywords:
Hajj pilgrimage, Carbon footprint, Zero-carbon framework, Climate adaptation, Ecological Modernization TheoryAbstract
The Hajj pilgrimage, one of the world’s largest annual mass gatherings, generates a substantial carbon footprint while facing increasing climate-related risks, particularly extreme heat stress in Makkah. This study aims to develop a zero-carbon framework for Hajj management based on Ecological Modernization Theory (EMT) and Triple Bottom Line (TBL) analysis. A mixed-methods approach was employed using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), GHG Protocol modelling, time-series ARDL analysis, semi-structured interviews, and an online survey involving pilgrims and stakeholders. Data were obtained from secondary sources, including reports from the Saudi Ministry of Hajj, UNEP, and IPCC, as well as primary data collected through interviews and surveys. The findings indicate that Hajj-related emissions currently exceed 1.8 million tons CO₂e per season, with international aviation contributing the largest share. Under a Business-as-Usual scenario, emissions could surpass 5 million tons CO₂e by 2030. The proposed framework integrates renewable energy, electrified mass transportation, circular ihram recycling, and carbon offsetting to significantly reduce emissions while improving pilgrim safety. The study concludes that a zero-carbon Hajj is achievable through coordinated environmental, social, and economic strategies aligned with Saudi Vision 2030 and the Saudi Green Initiative.
References
Almakaty, Safran Safar. “Transformations of Hajj Throughout History: An Analytical Reading of Its Civilizational, Humanitarian, and Administrative Dimensions: A Comprehensive Qualitative Historical Analysis,” 2025.
Almohammadi, Ahmed. “Heat-related illnesses in Saudi Arabia: Prevention, early recognition, and public health strategies.” Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Medical Science 12, no. 1 (2026): 7.
Arabia, SYSTRA. “Mashaaer Metro Project (Al Mashaaer Al Muqaddasah Metro Project).” Saudi Arabia: SYSTRA Arabia, 2025.
Authority, Saudi Water. “Replacement of end-of-life desal technology and assets at Shoaiba.” United Kingdom: Global Water Intelligence, 2026.
Bahman, Nahed, dan Mahmood Shaker. “Evaluating the effectiveness of sustainable aviation in the Middle East: A study of two UAE-based carriers,” 2022.
Duan, Ziyu, dan Seiyong Kim. “Progress in research on net-zero-carbon cities: a literature review and knowledge framework.” Energies 16, no. 17 (2023): 6279.
Enerdata. “ACWA Power starts commercial operations on a 2 GW solar project in Saudi Arabia.” 2025.
Fairuz, Azli. “Environmental sustainability in the Hajj pilgrimage.” Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci 14 (2024): 222–6990.
Huber, Joseph. “Pioneer Countries and the Global Diffusion of Environmental Innovations: Theses from the Viewpoint of Ecological Modernisation Theory.” Global Environmental Change 18, no. 3 (2008): 360–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2008.03.004.
International, Seeley. “Mina Tent City chose Breezair: not just another desert cooler.” Lonsdale, Australia: Seeley International, 2018.
Islam, Md Saidul. “Ecological modernization.” In Encyclopedia of Technological Hazards and Disasters in the Social Sciences, 196–202. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2024. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800882201.ch31.
Kantanka, Samuel Nana Safo, Michael Addaney, Rachel Yeboah Nketiah, Seth Opoku Mensah, dan Abdulaziz I Almulhim. “Climate change and adaptation to extreme heat in the Middle East and North Africa.” In Handbook on Planning and Climate Change Adaptation, 69–85. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2025.
Korba, Peter, Ingrid Sekelová, Martina Koščáková, dan Annamária Behúnová. “Passengers’ Knowledge and Attitudes toward Green Initiatives in Aviation.” Sustainability 15, no. 7 (2023): 6187. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076187.
Memish, Ziad A, Alimuddin Zumla, dan Salim Parker. “Heat-related deaths during the 2024 Hajj pilgrimage.” Journal of Travel Medicine 31, no. 6 (Agustus 2024): taae096. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taae096.
Mol, Arthur P J, dan Gert Spaargaren. “Ecological modernisation theory in debate: A review.” Environmental politics 9, no. 1 (2000): 17–49.
Naseem, Sana. “Pilgrimage Tourism, Economic growth & Energy consumption: Their Impact on Carbon Emission in Saudi Arabia.” Journal of Economic Studies, 2025.
Nogueira, Elisabete, Sofia Gomes, dan João M Lopes. “Financial Sustainability: Exploring the Influence of the Triple Bottom Line Economic Dimension on Firm Performance.” Sustainability, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156458.
Osra, Faisal, Jaber Alzahrani, Mohammad Alsoufi, Oumr Osra, dan Agha Zeeshan Mirza. “Environmental and economic sustainability in the Hajj system.” Arabian Journal of Geosciences 14 (Oktober 2021): 2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-08533-x.
Ozturk, Ilhan, Alper Aslan, dan Buket Altinoz. “Investigating the nexus between CO2 emissions, economic growth, energy consumption and pilgrimage tourism in Saudi Arabia.” Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja 35, no. 1 (Desember 2022): 3083–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2021.1985577.
Raihan, Asif, Syed Rahman, dan Tapan Sarker. “Saudi Arabia’s path to carbon neutrality: Analysis of the role of Hajj pilgrimage, energy consumption, and economic growth.” Innovation and Green Development 4 (Januari 2025): 100203. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.igd.2024.100203.
Rodiyah. “Sustainability in Hajj and Umrah Management: Exploring Eco-Friendly Practices and Strategies.” Jurnal Manajemen Dakwah 12, no. 1 (2024): 1–21.
Shah, Afnan A. “Enhancing Hajj and Umrah rituals and crowd management through AI technologies: A Comprehensive survey of applications and future directions.” Ieee Access 12 (2024): 161820–41.
Singh, Sandeepa. “Energy crisis and climate change: Global concerns and their solutions.” Energy: crises, challenges and solutions, 2021, 1–17.
Siva, Jessica, Thayaparan Gajendran, Owi Toinpre, dan Josephine Vaughan. “Driving the zero-carbon construction strategy: key barriers and enablers.” Built Environment Project and Asset Management 15, no. 3 (2025): 380–98.
Sudarto, Aye, Mesta Nita, dan Kukuh Cahyono. “Maqashid Syariah dalam Management Penyelenggaraan Ibadah Haji.” Multazam: Jurnal Manajemen Haji dan Umrah 3, no. 1 (2023): 34–42.
Waqar, Khanzada Muhammad, Safia Khan, dan Mufti Muhammad Iltimas Khan. “Islamic Responses To Global Crisis: The Role Of Faith In Addressing Modern Issues.” Journal of Religion and Society 2, no. 4 (2024): 173–85.
Witte, Andrew, dan Nishant Garg. “Quantifying the global warming potential of low carbon concrete mixes: Comparison of existing life cycle analysis tools.” Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024): e02832.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Abdillah, Ahmad, Muchriady Muchran
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
